Politics Dissertations - Media Political Attitudes - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 20 Words: 5944 Downloads: 4 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? The impact of the media on public opinion, in countries across the globe, including the United States, is the subject of a growing body of academic and public discourse. The media has grown to become the main conduit for the publics understanding of world events. If the media can be said to provide wide-ranging and balanced coverage of news events there seems little or no problem of negative influence on public opinion. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Politics Dissertations Media Political Attitudes" essay for you Create order However, the belief in the neutrality of media coverage is not without its critics and the manipulation of news affects the attitudes and behaviours of those it is aimed at, namely the wider American public. The following argument will espouse the view that the media in the current period of time do have an influence on public attitudes and behaviour. Furthermore, the media are in turn influenced by external factors, which can result in the manipulation of public opinion for means preferable to the ruling establishment and business. Before embarking on a definitive answer to this question one must firmly establish definitions that will be used throughout the essay. The first issue is whether or not we can identify and employ the term media as if it were a single entity. This essay will adopt the position that media in this circumstance pertains to the news media of electronic and print journalism. There are of course vast differences between the coverage of news networks such as CNN and newspaper publication such as The New York Times. However, the argument for the all-encompassing use of the term is persuasive. Timothy Cook, for example, explains that the strong similarities of news processes and news content across modalities (television, newspapers, and newsmagazines), size of organization, national or local audiences, etc., point to the news media as a single institution (Cook 1998, p. 84). Thus, for the purposes of this analysis the term media will be taken to represent a monolithic structure encompassing b roadcast, print and digital formats. On a further point of clarity it is necessary to establish the meaning of political attitudes and behaviours. Without resorting to a dictionary definition the distinction here appears to be with peoples thoughts, private or public, and actions, such as the physical act of voting. The measuring of public opinion is complex and has been researched and discussed thoroughly elsewhere. This essay will utilise the existing literature to establish that the media does have an effect on public attitudes and will as such go on to analyse the nature of the influences. The reliance upon the media for information is a key factor in understanding its influence. In his discussion of the issue Timothy Cook states that in the United States, the privately owned news media are relied upon to provide communication from the elite to the public, as well as within the public as a whole (Cook 1998, p. 82). This reliance places the media in a powerful position of mediating not only between the American public but also between the citizens and the state. Despite the multiplicity of news outlets the content, as noted above also by Cook, is often largely similar. The effect of dominant stories being emitted across the media spectrum is one of influencing the political and other attitudes and behaviour of the American public. In his article on the subject Donald Jordan reaches the conclusion that in both newspaper items and television broadcasts experts and commentators wield heavy influence (Jordan 1993, p. 191). The crux of their influence comes in the empowering of the media, by the public, who tend to place a great deal of weight upon the importance of the news stories that reach the front page or television screen. In turn the political importance placed upon this by the public comes as the public seek to judge the stance of politicians on the issues in the media, regardless of whether the said politicians are linked to the news event (Cook 1998, p. 126). It is this perceived influence that in reverse drives politicians to respond even if the issue does not react strongly. In addition to placing a degree of importance on news stories that reach them via the media, there is also reason to suggest that the American public believe what the media say about an issue. Indeed, Hustler publisher Larry Flynt argues that many Americans buy into the newss propaganda on a nightly basis (Flynt 2004, p. 183). If one takes buy into to mean agree with or accept as fact the influence of the media becomes apparent, [t]he reporter is the recorder of government but he is also a participant (Cater in Cook 1998, p. 1). The media, under these assumptions, cannot be viewed as the benign distributors of news, but also the selectors of news and the formers of opinion. The main argument against the above description is that of active audience analysis. This approach contends that audiences routinely interpret corporate messages in ways that suit their own needs, not that of media proprietors or advertisers. However, this argument itself is disputed by those suggesting this dismisses the cumulative effect of repetitive media messages (Herman and McChesney 1997, p. 194). The traditional argument is that the media serves the public well as a force for their democratic right to know (Taylor 1997, p. 1). The American media, and indeed the media of other western democracies, is heralded as a fundamental component of the virtuosity of free speech. In the conflicts against Iraq the rhetoric in the media contrasted the free speech of the media in democratic countries against the state-run media of Husseins Iraq. The irony here is the negated recognition of media censorship by western countries during times of conflict. More worryingly this censorship can often be identified as self-censorship as media organisations seek to remain with the official government and military information channels that dominate the flow of news from the battlefield. In this atmosphere the publics right to know appears to be more akin to the public right to know what the authorities want it to know. Professionalism is also enlisted to support the assertion that the media is acting upon the best interests of the public. The argument purported suggests the individual journalists have professional pride in their work and a moral work ethic that counters efforts to influence their output. However, this does not appear to be the case and tainted news stories emerge that influence the public perception of events. The lack of diversity in news sources, as previously referred to in Cooks account, does not reflect the multiplicity of interpretations that professionalism and personal interpretation by individual reporters would suggest. Despite any well-meaning intentions the most used sources of information by journalists are official channels. Journalists also work within the remit of the editorial policies of their institutions and other dominating factors that shape the news agenda. With conformity of opinion and repetition of news stories, combined with a public willingness to place greater emphasis on the importance of events in the news, the power of the American media to influence the public attitudes and behaviour towards issues becomes apparent. The editorial policies of the media appear to be free-chosen ideals, shaped by the political leanings of those in charge. In the case of newspapers, such overt political leanings are accepted if not expected. However, even with such freedom of choice one can argue that the conservative elements of the American establishment dominate the media agenda. Larry Flynt argues the media is dominated by these influences, which are able to insert their message into the media machine: Where did these ideas come from, and why are they so popular? The answers lie in our newspapers, magazines, radio, and television, and in the people who run them. On the right, you have media piranhas who lie, distort, and work the ref until our heads spin. On the left, you have press poodles who either just do what theyre told, or are too reasonable and polite to compete with ranting, conservative lunatics (Flynt 2004, p. 148). With this in mind one can argue the more conservative elements in politics are managing to portray their version of events. If this is the case and the public place greater faith in those messages purported by the media, then the political attitudes and behaviour of the American public can be said to be influenced. The re-election of George Bush, for example, would appear to substantiate such assertions. The increased commercialisation of the industry also plays a part in the influencing of public opinion. As has been noted the maturing of commercial broadcasting not only substitutes entertainment for public service; the U.S. experience suggests that maturation brings with it a decline in variety of viewpoints and increased protection of establishment interests (Herman and McChesney 1997, p. 143). News has to be important and interesting, for the viewing public to remain engaged. This brings about the introduction of value-laden assumptions to the selection process as news is filtered by editorial staff to provide entertaining news to keep ratings, and hence advertising revenue, high. Once more the unfiltered, diverse media is actually revealed to be both ideologically and economically sieved to produce a product to engage the public. Any discrepancy from this formula can prove troublesome, as Bernhard asserts, because [p]ointing to the social costs of capitalism is still mistaken fo r disloyalty, or for psychosis (Bernhard 1999, p. 178). The same is true for any criticism of a war effort, with the attackers facing the wrath of media and public criticism if messages are deemed unpatriotic. It is also argued that commercialisation leads to the isolation of the public from the political system. This view is put forward by Herman and McChesney: [T]he commercialisation of broadcasting has further weakened democracy by delocalizing (nationalizing) politics, because, as Gerald Benjamin notes, appeals made in one place or to one group may be immediately communicated regionally or nationally. Thus the distributive politics of particular appeals to particular groups can no longer be made by candidates without their first calculating the possible effects on other groups in their electoral coalitions. The individual is more isolated, political participation tends to be reduced, and the idea of collective social action is weakened (Herman and McChesney 1997, p. 147). The political system is altered by the mass reach of media. The individual is weakened and their political attitudes and behaviours are thus altered. Political action at a local level by determined groups is less possible now and the bigger picture much be considered. While the political power of the individual is weakened so too in the breadth of knowledge they attain from the media. Commercialisation and the modern media system have led to the trivialisation of news. Events are edited and selected to appeal as entertainment. The illusion of an informed American public appears justified by the mention of events from afar but, asks Phil Taylor, to what extent this can be said to be the case is debateable: In reality, does the practice of covering world events in twelve column inches or a three-minute news segment encourage prejudice rather than empathy, national pride rather than international harmony, and emotional rather than rational judgements? (Taylor 1997, pp. 1-2). The answer would appear to be yes to each, as while the public are presented with the faade of a multifaceted media machine the content is still highly selective. The outlets may be numerous but the depth is lacking. As the media world moves evermore to the instantaneous and 24-hour news culture the demand to produce a vast quantity of visually-orientated images quickly supersedes any depth of understanding the American public could seek to ascertain. The appeal to emotion does little to stimulate educated discussion upon issues. Instead, if the carefully selected news agenda wishes it can appeal to the public to behave in a way favourable to the governments wishes. For example, during the 1999 Kosovo Conflict the media in the United States and Great Britain played great attention to the human interest stories of Albanian refugees to stir public sympathy for intervention on their behalf. However, the irony was that the chosen form of intervention, solely from the air, while resulting in no politically damaging allied casualties, did little to stem the flow of refugees. Having referred to conflict one is also inclined to believe that the above interpretation of the media in the context of war may differ. When one takes into account the negative connotations assigned to the medias role during the Vietnam War the relationship would at first appear antagonistic and preclude any bowing on the part of the media to government will. However, the trend for assigning journalists to press pools in the 1990-1 Gulf War demonstrated an effective way of embedding journalists, not only physically, but also mentally with American forces. Cooperation between the media and the government manifested itself in ignoring and attempting to change public opinion, as Phillip Knightley explains: [S]izable minorities in both the United States and Britain were against such a war and although the mainstream media largely ignored their protests, these had to be dampened down unless they gained strength. Hussein had to be demonised. He was painted as being ruthless, another Hitler, a fanatic, deranged, a psychopath, hated by his own people and despised in the Arab world. Further, from the moment his troops had arrived in Kuwait they had committed unspeakable atrocities (Knightley 2001, p. 486). In addition to the restriction of information the media echoed government messages demonising Hussein and his actions. In this respect opposition to the conflict became tantamount to support for Saddam Hussein. Opposition was deemed unpatriotic. By ignoring public protest and presenting this interpretation of events the American public were being shamed into non-verbal opposition and the opinions of proponents of the war were bolstered by the apparent large-scale acceptance of their opinions, as witnessed through the media. Such a perception of events in conflict is at odds with the reality highlighted by Flynt in this and the subsequent conflict in Afghanistan: [W]e had no media with the troops in Afghanistan. Hardly anyone realized that most western reporters were being kept far from the front lines. The war news was being censored. We were being spoon fed commentary and military press releases masquerading as hard news. That was not only an insult to the American people, it was a huge disservice to news coverage in general (Flynt 2004, pp. 162-163). On a subject as emotive as conflict one would expect a mass media to be rife with opinions and conflicting views, representing the fears and worries of a diverse American public. The reverse was in fact true. The media demonstrated in the most tense of times that not only could and would it shape the perception of the conflict to the American people; it was also willing to gloss over public attitudes and expressions of dissent in a misled quest for patriotism in a manner that had historical precursors: In joining forces to sell the Cold War to the American people, government and industry professionals clearly knew they violated precepts of a free and independent press, but they justified it to themselves as a necessary patriotic duty in a fearsome age (Bernhard 1999, p. 179). Military conflict is one arena where the influence of the media is enhanced as the American public thirst for information. However, it also appears to be the occasion when the media is most likely to filter the information it provides. As with military confrontations the influence of media affects not only US public but also beyond. As Edward Herman and Robert McChesney point out the American model for global media is the likely ideal for other world media, as is, arguably, the democratic system of government (Herman and McChesney 1997, p. 137). This also includes cultural infiltration of the American way of life with publics of other nations. Herman and McChesney go so far as to state that: We also think it very important to recognize that media effects are inseparable from broader economic, political, and cultural influences, such as external military occupation and rule, foreign indirect rule through sponsored authoritarian regimes military and police aid and training, economic and financial linkages, and tourism and educational exchanges, all of which are at least as imbalanced as media exports and imports (Herman and McChesney 1997, p. 155). In a mass media world, where the reach of information is global, perhaps one should consider not only the influence on the American public, but also the worldwide cultural influence. The impact of the American media on public attitudes and behaviour is great. The media have an unparalleled hold over information dissemination to the wider public and the message, according to many commentators, is all too readily accepted. However the messages portrayed are not the result of individual reportage and endeavour on the part of journalists. The mass media is shaped by government and commercial interests that combine to reduce diverse outlets to the same messages. In times of heightened national interest in the news agenda, such as during conflict, the process is more restricted than normal. In essence the media present the contradiction of a mass, diverse organism that through the widespread regurgitation of similar messages, lends credence to those messages, influencing the publics judgement as to their infallibility. Bibliography Articles Jordan, Donald, Newspaper Effects on Policy Preferences, Political Opinion Quarterly, Vol. 57, 1993, pp. 191-204. Books Bernhard, Nancy, U.S. Television News and Cold War Propaganda, 1947-1960, (Cambridge: 1999). Cook, Timothy, Governing with the News. The News Media as a Political Institution, (London: 1998) Flynt, Larry, Sex, Lies and Politics. The Naked truth about Bush, Democracy and the War on Terror, (London: 2004). Herman, Edward and McChesney, Robert, The Global Media. The New Missionaries of Corporate Capitalism, (London: 1999). Knightley, Phillip, The First Casualty. The War Correspondent as Hero and Myth-Maker from the Crimea to Kosovo, (London: 2001). Taylor, Philip, Global Communications, International Affairs and the Media since 1945, (London: 1997). The impact of the media on public opinion, in countries across the globe, including the United States, is the subject of a growing body of academic and public discourse. The media has grown to become the main conduit for the publics understanding of world events. If the media can be said to provide wide-ranging and balanced coverage of news events there seems little or no problem of negative influence on public opinion. However, the belief in the neutrality of media coverage is not without its critics and the manipulation of news affects the attitudes and behaviours of those it is aimed at, namely the wider American public. The following argument will espouse the view that the media in the current period of time do have an influence on public attitudes and behaviour. Furthermore, the media are in turn influenced by external factors, which can result in the manipulation of public opinion for means preferable to the ruling establishment and business. Before embarking on a definitive answer to this question one must firmly establish definitions that will be used throughout the essay. The first issue is whether or not we can identify and employ the term media as if it were a single entity. This essay will adopt the position that media in this circumstance pertains to the news media of electronic and print journalism. There are of course vast differences between the coverage of news networks such as CNN and newspaper publication such as The New York Times. However, the argument for the all-encompassing use of the term is persuasive. Timothy Cook, for example, explains that the strong similarities of news processes and news content across modalities (television, newspapers, and newsmagazines), size of organization, national or local audiences, etc., point to the news media as a single institution (Cook 1998, p. 84). Thus, for the purposes of this analysis the term media will be taken to represent a monolithic structure encompassing b roadcast, print and digital formats. On a further point of clarity it is necessary to establish the meaning of political attitudes and behaviours. Without resorting to a dictionary definition the distinction here appears to be with peoples thoughts, private or public, and actions, such as the physical act of voting. The measuring of public opinion is complex and has been researched and discussed thoroughly elsewhere. This essay will utilise the existing literature to establish that the media does have an effect on public attitudes and will as such go on to analyse the nature of the influences. The reliance upon the media for information is a key factor in understanding its influence. In his discussion of the issue Timothy Cook states that in the United States, the privately owned news media are relied upon to provide communication from the elite to the public, as well as within the public as a whole (Cook 1998, p. 82). This reliance places the media in a powerful position of mediating not only between the American public but also between the citizens and the state. Despite the multiplicity of news outlets the content, as noted above also by Cook, is often largely similar. The effect of dominant stories being emitted across the media spectrum is one of influencing the political and other attitudes and behaviour of the American public. In his article on the subject Donald Jordan reaches the conclusion that in both newspaper items and television broadcasts experts and commentators wield heavy influence (Jordan 1993, p. 191). The crux of their influence comes in the empowering of the media, by the public, who tend to place a great deal of weight upon the importance of the news stories that reach the front page or television screen. In turn the political importance placed upon this by the public comes as the public seek to judge the stance of politicians on the issues in the media, regardless of whether the said politicians are linked to the news event (Cook 1998, p. 126). It is this perceived influence that in reverse drives politicians to respond even if the issue does not react strongly. In addition to placing a degree of importance on news stories that reach them via the media, there is also reason to suggest that the American public believe what the media say about an issue. Indeed, Hustler publisher Larry Flynt argues that many Americans buy into the newss propaganda on a nightly basis (Flynt 2004, p. 183). If one takes buy into to mean agree with or accept as fact the influence of the media becomes apparent, [t]he reporter is the recorder of government but he is also a participant (Cater in Cook 1998, p. 1). The media, under these assumptions, cannot be viewed as the benign distributors of news, but also the selectors of news and the formers of opinion. The main argument against the above description is that of active audience analysis. This approach contends that audiences routinely interpret corporate messages in ways that suit their own needs, not that of media proprietors or advertisers. However, this argument itself is disputed by those suggesting this dismisses the cumulative effect of repetitive media messages (Herman and McChesney 1997, p. 194). The traditional argument is that the media serves the public well as a force for their democratic right to know (Taylor 1997, p. 1). The American media, and indeed the media of other western democracies, is heralded as a fundamental component of the virtuosity of free speech. In the conflicts against Iraq the rhetoric in the media contrasted the free speech of the media in democratic countries against the state-run media of Husseins Iraq. The irony here is the negated recognition of media censorship by western countries during times of conflict. More worryingly this censorship can often be identified as self-censorship as media organisations seek to remain with the official government and military information channels that dominate the flow of news from the battlefield. In this atmosphere the publics right to know appears to be more akin to the public right to know what the authorities want it to know. Professionalism is also enlisted to support the assertion that the media is acting upon the best interests of the public. The argument purported suggests the individual journalists have professional pride in their work and a moral work ethic that counters efforts to influence their output. However, this does not appear to be the case and tainted news stories emerge that influence the public perception of events. The lack of diversity in news sources, as previously referred to in Cooks account, does not reflect the multiplicity of interpretations that professionalism and personal interpretation by individual reporters would suggest. Despite any well-meaning intentions the most used sources of information by journalists are official channels. Journalists also work within the remit of the editorial policies of their institutions and other dominating factors that shape the news agenda. With conformity of opinion and repetition of news stories, combined with a public willingness to place greater emphasis on the importance of events in the news, the power of the American media to influence the public attitudes and behaviour towards issues becomes apparent. The editorial policies of the media appear to be free-chosen ideals, shaped by the political leanings of those in charge. In the case of newspapers, such overt political leanings are accepted if not expected. However, even with such freedom of choice one can argue that the conservative elements of the American establishment dominate the media agenda. Larry Flynt argues the media is dominated by these influences, which are able to insert their message into the media machine: Where did these ideas come from, and why are they so popular? The answers lie in our newspapers, magazines, radio, and television, and in the people who run them. On the right, you have media piranhas who lie, distort, and work the ref until our heads spin. On the left, you have press poodles who either just do what theyre told, or are too reasonable and polite to compete with ranting, conservative lunatics (Flynt 2004, p. 148). With this in mind one can argue the more conservative elements in politics are managing to portray their version of events. If this is the case and the public place greater faith in those messages purported by the media, then the political attitudes and behaviour of the American public can be said to be influenced. The re-election of George Bush, for example, would appear to substantiate such assertions. The increased commercialisation of the industry also plays a part in the influencing of public opinion. As has been noted the maturing of commercial broadcasting not only substitutes entertainment for public service; the U.S. experience suggests that maturation brings with it a decline in variety of viewpoints and increased protection of establishment interests (Herman and McChesney 1997, p. 143). News has to be important and interesting, for the viewing public to remain engaged. This brings about the introduction of value-laden assumptions to the selection process as news is filtered by editorial staff to provide entertaining news to keep ratings, and hence advertising revenue, high. Once more the unfiltered, diverse media is actually revealed to be both ideologically and economically sieved to produce a product to engage the public. Any discrepancy from this formula can prove troublesome, as Bernhard asserts, because [p]ointing to the social costs of capitalism is still mistaken fo r disloyalty, or for psychosis (Bernhard 1999, p. 178). The same is true for any criticism of a war effort, with the attackers facing the wrath of media and public criticism if messages are deemed unpatriotic. It is also argued that commercialisation leads to the isolation of the public from the political system. This view is put forward by Herman and McChesney: [T]he commercialisation of broadcasting has further weakened democracy by delocalizing (nationalizing) politics, because, as Gerald Benjamin notes, appeals made in one place or to one group may be immediately communicated regionally or nationally. Thus the distributive politics of particular appeals to particular groups can no longer be made by candidates without their first calculating the possible effects on other groups in their electoral coalitions. The individual is more isolated, political participation tends to be reduced, and the idea of collective social action is weakened (Herman and McChesney 1997, p. 147). The political system is altered by the mass reach of media. The individual is weakened and their political attitudes and behaviours are thus altered. Political action at a local level by determined groups is less possible now and the bigger picture much be considered. While the political power of the individual is weakened so too in the breadth of knowledge they attain from the media. Commercialisation and the modern media system have led to the trivialisation of news. Events are edited and selected to appeal as entertainment. The illusion of an informed American public appears justified by the mention of events from afar but, asks Phil Taylor, to what extent this can be said to be the case is debateable: In reality, does the practice of covering world events in twelve column inches or a three-minute news segment encourage prejudice rather than empathy, national pride rather than international harmony, and emotional rather than rational judgements? (Taylor 1997, pp. 1-2). The answer would appear to be yes to each, as while the public are presented with the faade of a multifaceted media machine the content is still highly selective. The outlets may be numerous but the depth is lacking. As the media world moves evermore to the instantaneous and 24-hour news culture the demand to produce a vast quantity of visually-orientated images quickly supersedes any depth of understanding the American public could seek to ascertain. The appeal to emotion does little to stimulate educated discussion upon issues. Instead, if the carefully selected news agenda wishes it can appeal to the public to behave in a way favourable to the governments wishes. For example, during the 1999 Kosovo Conflict the media in the United States and Great Britain played great attention to the human interest stories of Albanian refugees to stir public sympathy for intervention on their behalf. However, the irony was that the chosen form of intervention, solely from the air, while resulting in no politically damaging allied casualties, did little to stem the flow of refugees. Having referred to conflict one is also inclined to believe that the above interpretation of the media in the context of war may differ. When one takes into account the negative connotations assigned to the medias role during the Vietnam War the relationship would at first appear antagonistic and preclude any bowing on the part of the media to government will. However, the trend for assigning journalists to press pools in the 1990-1 Gulf War demonstrated an effective way of embedding journalists, not only physically, but also mentally with American forces. Cooperation between the media and the government manifested itself in ignoring and attempting to change public opinion, as Phillip Knightley explains: [S]izable minorities in both the United States and Britain were against such a war and although the mainstream media largely ignored their protests, these had to be dampened down unless they gained strength. Hussein had to be demonised. He was painted as being ruthless, another Hitler, a fanatic, deranged, a psychopath, hated by his own people and despised in the Arab world. Further, from the moment his troops had arrived in Kuwait they had committed unspeakable atrocities (Knightley 2001, p. 486). In addition to the restriction of information the media echoed government messages demonising Hussein and his actions. In this respect opposition to the conflict became tantamount to support for Saddam Hussein. Opposition was deemed unpatriotic. By ignoring public protest and presenting this interpretation of events the American public were being shamed into non-verbal opposition and the opinions of proponents of the war were bolstered by the apparent large-scale acceptance of their opinions, as witnessed through the media. Such a perception of events in conflict is at odds with the reality highlighted by Flynt in this and the subsequent conflict in Afghanistan: [W]e had no media with the troops in Afghanistan. Hardly anyone realized that most western reporters were being kept far from the front lines. The war news was being censored. We were being spoon fed commentary and military press releases masquerading as hard news. That was not only an insult to the American people, it was a huge disservice to news coverage in general (Flynt 2004, pp. 162-163). On a subject as emotive as conflict one would expect a mass media to be rife with opinions and conflicting views, representing the fears and worries of a diverse American public. The reverse was in fact true. The media demonstrated in the most tense of times that not only could and would it shape the perception of the conflict to the American people; it was also willing to gloss over public attitudes and expressions of dissent in a misled quest for patriotism in a manner that had historical precursors: In joining forces to sell the Cold War to the American people, government and industry professionals clearly knew they violated precepts of a free and independent press, but they justified it to themselves as a necessary patriotic duty in a fearsome age (Bernhard 1999, p. 179). Military conflict is one arena where the influence of the media is enhanced as the American public thirst for information. However, it also appears to be the occasion when the media is most likely to filter the information it provides. As with military confrontations the influence of media affects not only US public but also beyond. As Edward Herman and Robert McChesney point out the American model for global media is the likely ideal for other world media, as is, arguably, the democratic system of government (Herman and McChesney 1997, p. 137). This also includes cultural infiltration of the American way of life with publics of other nations. Herman and McChesney go so far as to state that: We also think it very important to recognize that media effects are inseparable from broader economic, political, and cultural influences, such as external military occupation and rule, foreign indirect rule through sponsored authoritarian regimes military and police aid and training, economic and financial linkages, and tourism and educational exchanges, all of which are at least as imbalanced as media exports and imports (Herman and McChesney 1997, p. 155). In a mass media world, where the reach of information is global, perhaps one should consider not only the influence on the American public, but also the worldwide cultural influence. The impact of the American media on public attitudes and behaviour is great. The media have an unparalleled hold over information dissemination to the wider public and the message, according to many commentators, is all too readily accepted. However the messages portrayed are not the result of individual reportage and endeavour on the part of journalists. The mass media is shaped by government and commercial interests that combine to reduce diverse outlets to the same messages. In times of heightened national interest in the news agenda, such as during conflict, the process is more restricted than normal. In essence the media present the contradiction of a mass, diverse organism that through the widespread regurgitation of similar messages, lends credence to those messages, influencing the publics judgement as to their infallibility. Bibliography Articles Jordan, Donald, Newspaper Effects on Policy Preferences, Political Opinion Quarterly, Vol. 57, 1993, pp. 191-204. Books Bernhard, Nancy, U.S. Television News and Cold War Propaganda, 1947-1960, (Cambridge: 1999). Cook, Timothy, Governing with the News. The News Media as a Political Institution, (London: 1998) Flynt, Larry, Sex, Lies and Politics. The Naked truth about Bush, Democracy and the War on Terror, (London: 2004). Herman, Edward and McChesney, Robert, The Global Media. The New Missionaries of Corporate Capitalism, (London: 1999). Knightley, Phillip, The First Casualty. The War Correspondent as Hero and Myth-Maker from the Crimea to Kosovo, (London: 2001). Taylor, Philip, Global Communications, International Affairs and the Media since 1945, (London: 1997).

A Survey On Women And The Governmental Branches Of The...

Methods Participants The sample participants in this survey are women serving in the three governmental branches of the United States. Those three branches consist of the legislative branch (104 women), executive branch (7 women), and the judicial branch (131 women) nation wide. Additionally, those women arranged from the Democratic and Republican parties. Potential participants will include two hundred and fifty-five women derived from various branches. All potential subjects will receive information on the study. That information will contain, the purpose of the study, who will be doing the research, and when the research conveyed. As a recruitment method emails distributed to all potential participants will notifying them of upcoming survey dates and reminders. Those participants who decide to complete and submit their survey will serve as our purposive sample. Each participant that partook will receive 10 dollars, for participation. Instruments Survey During the research study potential participants will be given a questionnaire. The purpose of this questionnaire is to assess the participant’s positions regarding whether or not a glass ceiling exists in the political sector. A clear and precise definition of the â€Å"glass ceiling† will be briefly described at the top of the survey, before the questions begin. Glass Ceiling definition is as follows: â€Å"an upper limit to professional advancement, especially as imposed upon women, that is not readily perceived or openlyShow MoreRelatedGovernmental Structure Essay865 Words   |  4 PagesGovernmental Structure Government must be created to serve the people in a just manner. James Madison can best explain this in his writings of The Federalist number 51 saying, If men were angels, no government would be necessary. 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Various studies also suggested that the policies, systems andRead MoreBusiness For The American Business5535 Words   |  23 PagesProfessor Jung: The attached report, requested by the Business Communications course for this summer semester in a letter addressed to LBM on July 1, 2015, describes the business and social customs in Israel from an informative point of view. A survey was conducted and five interviews were compiled in order to gain primary knowledge of Israeli business practices. Additionally, secondary research was conducted in order to support these findings. Those who plan to begin a business or conduct businessRead MoreProject Report on Awerness of Consumer Protection Act14651 Words   |  59 PagesConsumer education is an important part of this process and is a basic consumer right that must be introduced at the School Level. Consumers by definition include all citizens who are by and large the biggest group who are affected by almost all governmental, public or private decisions. The most important step in consumer education is awareness of consumer rights. However consumer education is incomplete without th e responsibilities and duties of consumers and this influences individual behavior toRead MoreGlobalization and It Effects on Cultural Integration: the Case of the Czech Republic.27217 Words   |  109 Pagesintegration being our topic of discussion, in recent years there have been programs carried out by the government bodies, United Nations, the European Union and the Non-governmental organizations for the integration of immigrants and foreigners in the Czech Republic. As a way of encouraging integration, the ministry of culture represents intercultural dialogue within the state policy. The ministry also give support to cultural activities of members of national minorities living in the country, supportRead MoreGermany Essay2880 Words   |  12 Pagesall high school students, and returned to the specialized system of the western part of the country. Education Schooling in Germany is compulsory and free for people between the ages of 6 and 18. Although education is controlled by the individual state governments, national coordinating groups ensure that school systems and requirements are roughly the same throughout the region. Almost all adults in Germany are literate. Children begin their education with four years at a Grundschule (primary school)Read MoreChild Abuse And Neglect Of Children5936 Words   |  24 Pages  Child abuse is the physical, sexual or emotional maltreatment or neglect of a child or children. In the United States, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the Department for Children and Families define child maltreatment as any act or series of acts of commission or omission by a parent or other caregiver that results in harm, potential for harm, or threat of harm to a child. Child abuse can occur in a child s home, or in the organizations, schools or communities the child interactsRead MoreFactors Affect Choice of Bank Services23387 Words   |  94 Pagesmoral supports. For they have devoted unreserved efforts to comment and edit my work before it has sent to advisor, the research time was a lovely moment for me. G/medhin G/silassie and Berhe W/mariam also deserve thankfulness for participating in the survey st udy. Last but not least, I would like to extend my gratitude to all my friends, colleagues and my beloved family who have supported and motivated me to come this far. My sincere thanks and appreciation goes to you all. ii STATEMENT OF CERTIFICATION

Profiling Database Application to Detect SQL Injection Attacks.

Question: Describe about the Profiling Database Application to Detect SQL Injection Attacks? Answer: Solution Bus Booking System The Online Bus Ticket Reservation System is a application which is web-based permits guests to check obtainability of bus tickets, purchase bus ticket and wage the online. The scheme is exact in implementation and project. The scheme needs exact little scheme resources and the scheme will effort in nearly altogether configurations. It has acquired subsequent topographies: It will safeguard statistics correctness. Accounts will be professionally preserved by DBMS. Obtainability of seats could be queried effortlessly. Travelers can also withdraw their tickets effortlessly. Least time desirable for the numerous handling. It will deliver improved facility. User Activities The greatest actions approved out by employer are exemplified bellow The user can create account The user can edit account The user can reset password The passengers can be edited The ticket booking Deletion of account Database Creating 3 tables: Bus User Account For each table we will have following things: Bus: Arrival Destination Departure destination Arrival time Departure time FareUser: User User name User id Password Address Account: passenger details last ticket booked Sql query: For bus: create table BUS ( arrivalDest varchar2(20) , departureDest varchar2(20) , arrival_time date , dep_time date , fare decimal(5,2) , Total_seats number (2) ); For user: create table user_bus { u_Name varchar2(20), u_ID varchar2(10), password varchar2(20), address varchar2(50) ); For account: create table Account ( u_ID varchar2(10), pass_details varchar2(30), contactNo number(10), last_ticket varchar2(30) ); Registration before use sql query: Insert into table user_bus values ( ronit roy , r007 , hash007 , 110 / 07 baker street , London, U.K. ) ; Adding Passenger information : Insert into table account values ( Steve Jobs , 1234567890 ) ; Adding itinerary: Insert into table BUS values ( London , Scotland , '12-jul-15 02.10.10 PM ' , '12-jul-15 02.10.10 PM ' , 100.20 , 15 ) ; Edit passenger information : Update account set pass_details = Amanda Rose where contactNo = 1234567890 ; Delete passenger information : Delete from account where contactNo = 1234567890 ; Edit account information : Update account set contactNo = 1234567890 where pass_details = Amanda Rose ; Fuctions : Create user : Insert into table user_bus values ( Roney cole , RC101 , pass123 , 1 12 park avenue , los angeles ); Edit user information : Update user_bus set u_name = Amanda Rose where u_ID = RR101 ; Reset password : Update user_bus set password = RoseMaryMarlow9 where u_ID = RR101 ; Add another passenger : Insert into table account values ( Steffi johns , 1234567891 ) ; Edit passenger : Update account set pass_details = Amanda Rose where contactNo = 1234567890 ; Delete passenger : Delete from account where contactNo = 1234567890 ; Book ticket : Insert into table BUS values ( London , Scotland , '12-jul-15 02.10.10 PM ' , '12-jul-15 02.10.10 PM ' , 100.20 , 15 ) ; Change ticket : Update bus set arrivalDest = paris , departureDest = zurich where seat 0 ; Cancel ticket : Update bus set arrivalDest = paris , departureDest = zurich where seat = seat +1 ; Program (Java) Java code is given and attached in the file project.java. References: Bertino, E., Kamra, A. and Early, J. (2007). Profiling Database Application to Detect SQL Injection Attacks.2007 IEEE International Performance, Computing, and Communications Conference. Li, Y. and Manoharan, S. (2013). A performance comparison of SQL and NoSQL databases.2013 IEEE Pacific Rim Conference on Communications, Computers and Signal Processing (PACRIM). 3. Ilpubs.stanford.edu, (2015).Lore: A Database Management System for Semistructured Data - Stanford InfoLab Publication Server. [online] Available at: https://ilpubs.stanford.edu:8090/261/ [Accessed 2 Sep. 2015]. 4. Selinger, P., Astrahan, M., Chamberlin, D., Lorie, R. and Price, T. (1979). Access path selection in a relational database management system.Proceedings of the 1979 ACM SIGMOD international conference on Management of data - SIGMOD '79. 5. Astrahan, M., Mehl, J., Putzolu, G., Traiger, I., Wade, B., Watson, V., Blasgen, M., Chamberlin, D., Eswaran, K., Gray, J., Griffiths, P., King, W., Lorie, R. and McJones, P. (1976). System R: relational approach to database management.ACM Transactions on Database Systems, 1(2), pp.97-137. 6. Zhang, C., Naughton, J., DeWitt, D., Luo, Q. and Lohman, G. (2001). On supporting containment queries in relational database management systems.Proceedings of the 2001 ACM SIGMOD international conference on Management of data - SIGMOD '01. 7. Stonebraker, M. (1981). Operating system support for database management.Communications of the ACM, 24(7), pp.412-418. 8. McFadden, F., Prescott, M. and Hoffer, J. (1998). Modern Database Management.Addison-Wesley Longman Publishing Co., Inc., [online] p. Available at: https://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=551959 [Accessed 2 Sep. 2015]. 9. Harmsen, D., Claus, H., Witte, W., Rothganger, J., Claus, H., Turnwald, D. and Vogel, U. (2003). Typing of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus in a University Hospital Setting by Using Novel Software for spa Repeat Determination and Database Management.Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 41(12), pp.5442-5448. 10. Dspace.utamu.ac.ug, (2015). [online] Available at: https://dspace.utamu.ac.ug:8080/xmlui/bitstream/handle/123456789/85/%5BRamakrishnan_R.,_Gehrke_J.%5D_Database_Management_S(BookFi.org).pdf?sequence=1isAllowed=y [Accessed 2 Sep. 2015]. 11. Li, Y. and Manoharan, S. (2013). A performance comparison of SQL and NoSQL databases.2013 IEEE Pacific Rim Conference on Communications, Computers and Signal Processing (PACRIM). 12. Mohan, C., Lindsay, B. and Obermarck, R. (1986). Transaction management in the R* distributed database management system.ACM Transactions on Database Systems, 11(4), pp.378-396. 13. Tsichritzis, D. and Klug, A. (1978). The ANSI/X3/SPARC DBMS framework report of the study group on database management systems.Information Systems, 3(3), pp.173-191. 14. Govindaraju, N., Gray, J., Kumar, R. and Manocha, D. (2006). GPUTeraSort.Proceedings of the 2006 ACM SIGMOD international conference on Management of data - SIGMOD '06. 15. Vldb.org, (2015). [online] Available at: https://www.vldb.org/conf/1986/P294.PDF [Accessed 2 Sep. 2015]. 16. Butterworth, P., Otis, A. and Stein, J. (1991). The GemStone object database management system.Communications of the ACM, 34(10), pp.64-77. 17. Kemper, A. and Moerkotte, G. (1994). Object-oriented database management: applications in engineering and computer science.Prentice-Hall, Inc., [online] p. Available at: https://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=174450 [Accessed 2 Sep. 2015]. 18. Menasc, D. and Nakanishi, T. (1982). Optimistic versus pessimistic concurrency control mechanisms in database management systems.Information Systems, 7(1), pp.13-27.

Top Ten Persuasive Essay Topics

Top Ten Persuasive Essay TopicsThe top ten persuasive essay topics are designed to get the point across to your reader in as few words as possible. There are many topics for this purpose, but some have more power than others. A good topic can change the outcome of a conversation and usually persuade the reader to take action in your direction.Because this is an area that most people have an opinion about, persuasive essay topics are important, and it's vital to know which are the most powerful ones. Below you will find the top ten topics, and how each one is used to influence someone's opinion.One of the most persuasive essay topics is an argument about what is important. Some people say that you should always argue about what is important, but the first step is to consider why something is important. If the situation is important to a specific person, then you should consider it when writing. This is an extremely effective tactic.Politeness is another of the top ten persuasive essay topics. Politeness is a natural response, and is an aspect of human psychology that no one wants to deny. You should never fall into the trap of saying something so as not to upset someone. It is best to let them know that you are pleased with their choice and they will respect your decision and not be offended.Close ties between writing about writing is one of the best persuasive essay topics. You should learn the power of writing and communication, to get someone to open up and share their ideas with you. You should learn how to use information from those around you to help you make better decisions.An experience is another one of the top ten persuasive essay topics. Why not consider a topic that was experienced by someone else? They could have experienced it, but you can use this to get the other person to open up and share their experiences. Just keep in mind that they have probably had a similar experience.Reading in its entirety is also one of the top ten persuasive essay top ics. People like to hear themselves read, and often ask a question, so why not show them? Encourage them to read through the essay, and let them know that the more they read, the more they will remember.One final example of the top ten persuasive essay topics is a definition. Give them a great, clear definition of something that they don't understand, and let them know that they should trust you. The more clearly you explain something, the more likely it is that you will get them to believe in what you say.

Life, Death and Buffy the Vampire Slayer Essay Topics

Life, Death and Buffy the Vampire Slayer Essay Topics In the series, vampires are made from the lifeless victims of further vampires (assuming that a specific rite is conducted via the victim's death). The Ugly Man managed to turn everybody's nightmares a reality. Willow became a potent witch. Meanwhile, Willow successfully performs the potent spell after she's overcome through an unknown mystical energy. Understanding Buffy the Vampire Slayer Essay Topics If a monster occupies precisely the same space for a character then a wound is set on the track instead, which isn't so bad since there are two or three methods to discard wound tokens. Be warned, however, there are a couple horrible artifacts which make life worse when drawn. Nevertheless, it was quite a stark action to do. Her mum thinks that everything is likely to work out in Sunnydale and that they'll be in a position to have a joyful life there. Key Pieces of Buffy the Vampire Slayer Essay Topics Reading example essays works exactly the same way! The Different You have the ability to Times. Essays could possibly be lightly modified for readability or to defend the anonymity of contributors, but we don't edit essay examples ahead of publication. All these essays evaluate typically the societal together with personal troubles implicit in your show and put the idea with it has the literary wording. The Hidden Secret of Buffy the Vampire Slayer Essay Topics That would've become the genuine betrayal. The fact this is a child-killing monster is scary alone. The majority of these vampires do not reside in castles and aren't treated as royalty, but instead the opposite. There are times that you will need distance to actually understand the gravitas of that. Or you may use the opposite effect by creating a character seem powerful and powerful from using a minimal angle shot (looking up). This collection of images is showing the audience that she's restless since there is some sort of dist ortion in the images, and a few are not fully visible. Our dimensions or properties stay fixed and don't change. A script or director hasn't yet been determined. Angel was the greatest spinoff that was made from Buffy. The series was made by writer-director Joss Whedon. Their second chat in the library is just one of my favourite scenes. Shortening or truncation is additionally a typical technique. This was a considerable departure from the conventional episodic television format. Sad to say but it's tough to pick the smartest choice. Have a veterinarian or knowledgeable friend demonstrate how to track down the quick. The simple fact that only children could observe the demon made it even worse, since they were the least equipped to manage the horror. Your guilt dart cannot penetrate. Buffy was still only a teenage girl handling the weight of the planet pressing back on her tiny shoulders. The Secret to Buffy the Vampire Slayer Essay Topics Possessing a strong minds et before starting to look for jobs is among the important components to successfully land a co-op job. Your proposal can't be the very first page-and-a-half of your essay. Choosing our service, you will realize that studying can be simple if you gain from the aid of capable experts. She accomplishes this with the help of a close circle of friends and family members. As an actor, all you ever wish to do is leave your mark that you want to do something which affects people. Potentially this might be because of the darker tone for the very first season. All big series', not just genre shows, are going to have central theme running through the heart of the season that the remainder of the episodes anchor around. Nowadays many shows cannot get the ideal balance of distinct genres as this show did. Contest information and rules are available here. Guys, drop all your weekend plans immediately. Even in the event the deadline is very tight, feel free to get hold of our managers. They're affected by medications, poisons, and electricity and they are able to be sedated and tasered. BUN tests have to be done a specific way. It won't be any different than every other blood test you've received.

Powerful Strategies for College Research Paper Buy That You Can Begin to Use Immediately

Powerful Strategies for College Research Paper Buy That You Can Begin to Use Immediately Introducing College Research Paper Buy Writing a research paper is a tool for those teachers in order to rate the abilities and understanding of the students. Students' debts keep increasing and it's not useful to constantly require them to buy something so as to prepare for their exams. In order for they to find the resources that are right for them, they need to decide why they need to get a term paper for free and what they will use it for. With the many activities that they have on their daily schedules, it can be hard to find the time to all the requisite research and writing. Therefore, if you're thinking of using our customized research paper writing services, here are a few of the means by which you stand to benefit. From time to time, the best method to learn and understand new information is by way of seeing and understanding work which is already completed. 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College Essay Samples For Health Care

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